Biomimicry as a Primer in Policy Entrepreneurship for Environmental Sustainability in Developing Oil Producing Countries: A Case Study of Nigeria and Qatar

---

---

Graphical Abstract

---

Abstract

Biomimicry, the approach of learning from nature, is gaining interest as a means of achieving sustainable development. However, limited research exists on how biomimicry can be useful for policy ideation by policy entrepreneurs to generate policy ideas for decision-makers. This paper explores the potential of biomimicry in guiding policy development in developing countries facing environmental sustainability challenges due to oil exploration. The paper uses Nigeria and Qatar as case studies to illustrate how the biomimicry thought process can help generate policy ideas informed by environmental sustainability challenges, such as waste generation, greenhouse gas emissions, and water pollution. Data collected through a case study approach demonstrates that introducing the biomimicry approach in policy-making will help developing countries transition towards a green economy and sustainable practices. However, a challenge identified is the gap between policy entrepreneurs and decision-makers’ compliance. The study’s results highlight the potential of biomimicry in policy development and call for further research on this approach to address environmental sustainability challenges in developing countries.

Keywords: Policy Entrepreneurship, Environmental Sustainability, Green Economy, Nigeria, Qatar.

1.  Introduction

Natural capital constitutes approximately 50% of human wealth. However, human beings are depleting natural capital rapidly through the current economic model, which features economic activities that lead to the consumption of more biomass than the planet can produce sustainably. Whereas the current model (dubbed as brown economy) is detrimental to the environment, green economy and green entrepreneurship play a crucial role in decoupling resource use and environmental effects from economic growth, thus minimizing the harmful impacts of our economic activities and instilling sustainability for the long-term. In the quest for nature-inspired solutions to solve the current environmental, economic, and social problems, biomimicry has emerged as an ideal way of achieving these objectives. Biomimicry is an innovation method that seeks sustainable solutions for the issues we face by imitating the patterns and strategies of nature that have formed over time (Blok & Gremmen, 2016). As a method, biomimicry aims to develop earth-friendly processes, products, and sustainable policies. Embracing biomimicry as part of policy entrepreneurship could ensure that businesses become greener by bridging the gap between the current and future economy. For developing states that are still grappling with sustainability issues, biomimicry remains a potential solution that has not been explored deeply. This article is based on the assumption that the biomimicry method has excellent potential as basis for policy development in these developing countries that are grappling with attaining environmental sustainability. Developing countries that produce oil can benefit significantly by embracing this concept since their activities cause disastrous harm to the environment and their populations. Using Nigeria as the main case study and Qatar as a secondary example, this article seeks to illustrate the correlation between policy entrepreneurship and biomimicry. It then shows how biomimicry could contribute towards attaining environmental sustainability in developing countries, with particular reference to Nigeria. The core aim of the article is to illustrate how the adoption of biomimicry can enable policy entrepreneurs to generate policy ideas for solving environmental challenges in Nigeria and other developing states.

2. Methodology

This study uses case studies from Qatar and Nigeria to bridge the gap between policy entrepreneurs and decision-makers and ensure that environmental sustainability is actualized. A critical literature review is also used for forming basis for further inquiry. In carrying out the review, the researcher adhered to six main generic steps: formulation of the research aims and objectives, search for the literature, screening to determine the studies to include in the review, assessment of the quality of primary studies, data extraction, and analysis (Lau & Kuziemsky, 2016). The databases used for finding literature were Google Scholar, CiteSeer, Microsoft Academic Research, Bioline International, Plos One, Science Direct, EBSCOhost, Scopus, Sage, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. However, the most used databases were Scopus, EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, and Sage. As the first step in this review, the researcher justified the need to conduct a review (Shea et al., 2009). There is a need to understand the current status of biomimicry in developing states, especially regarding how policy entrepreneurs use them in Nigeria. This article’s research question revolves around demonstrating how the relationship between biomimicry and policy entrepreneurship can contribute to environmental sustainability in developing societies, and underscores the kind of information required.

The second step of the review entailed searching for the literature and deciding on the suitability of sources that were included. Whereas there are numerous kinds of coverage strategies that can be used, this article limited itself to presenting materials that were relevant for the research question and objectives. Pare et al. (2015) contend that this strategy requires that researchers who embrace this strategy search for the relevant articles in a few top-tier journals. Also, the review focuses on prior studies that have been instrumental in the research topic. The third step entailed screening for inclusion by evaluating whether the materials identified in the second step were relevant (Levy & Ellis, 2006). After identifying the potential studies, screening was done to ascertain their relevance. The inclusion criteria entailed embedding studies that had the following keywords: Policy Entrepreneurship, Environmental Sustainability, Green Economy, Nigeria, and Qatar. Studies published in 2000 or after 2000 were also considered to ensure that the information was up-to-date. Objectivity was considered to eliminate bias and avoid mistakes (Shea et al., 2009). The fourth step involved the assessment of the quality of the selected studies. Apart from screening for inclusion, the article found it necessary to assess the quality of the studies selected to ensure there was sufficient rigor of the research methods and designs deployed by the materials. As a formal assessment, this step was crucial for determining the studies to include in the final sample. The next step involved the extraction of data from each primary study in the sample and ascertaining what is relevant to biomimicry and policy entrepreneurs (Cooper et al., 2009). The data recorded mainly relied on the article’s research question. However, the article also tried to include how, where, and when the studies were carried out, their methods, designs, and results. The final step involved the analysis and synthesis of data by collating, summarizing, aggregating, organizing, and comparing the evidence that was extracted from the studies included. The extracted information was presented in a systematic and meaningful way, as emphasized by Jesson et al. (2011). The organization was based on topics and sub-topics that the researchers deemed necessary for the study.

This review appreciates that it is quite challenging to ensure validity in theoretical research. Validity implies that the review will provide practical solutions to the problem under study. There is also a risk that the study may end up only being a summary of the current literature. To ensure validity, careful analysis, and presentation of the information is carried out. Biomimicry is often approached from a design or technological point of view, but this review approaches biomimicry from a sustainability and policy entrepreneurship angle. Research ethics is fulfilled by avoiding plagiarism or issuing false statements. Also, the use of peer-reviewed sources ensures that the article is reliable.

3. Biomimicry

Pawlyn (2011) contends that the term ‘biomimicry’ first emerged in scientific literature in the early 1960s. It traces its origin to two Greek terms ‘bios’ meaning life, and ‘mimesis’ meaning to imitate. In simple terms, Biomimicry implies imitating life and entails studying the way biological organisms have overcome challenges by adapting to survive within their environments (Pawlyn, 2016). Lehn and Benyus contend that three major principles/dimensions apply in biomimicry: nature as a model, measure and mentor (Lehn & Benyus, 2012: Benyus, 1997; Benyus, 2002). McGregor (2013) and Reed (2003) believe that the three dimensions provide a platform for classification of the different biomimicry approaches. Nature as model entails studying and using nature’s designs and processes as an inspiration for solving social issues (See Figure 1). Nature as a measure is an ecological standard for judging the appropriateness of innovations, while nature as a mentor is a new form of viewing and valuing nature in terms of what we can gain insight from it. According to Benyus (1997; 2009), examining nature and imitating its existing systems, process, and models could be instrumental for sustainably solving design issues. Biomimicry serves two major roles: sustainability and innovation. Biological organisms embody technologies that provide sustainable solutions (Pawlyn, 2011; Pawlyn, 2016). Basing on Rao’s (2014) argument that biomimicry utilizes a green background to determine the sustainability of innovations, sustainability criteria, and technological innovations could be interrelated.

Figure 1: Biomimicry Life Principles

Similarly, biomimicry could work on three levels: organism, behavior, and the ecosystem. These levels are mainly applicable in architecture where buildings at the level of the organism tend to mimic specific organisms. Working on the organism level without considering the way the organisms take part in a broader context could be insufficient for producing a construction that connects well with its environment since an organism usually functions and becomes responsive to a broader context. An example of the organism level is the Gherkin Tower designed by Norman Foster that was inspired by Venus Flower Sponge. The Eden Project is another notable example in England that has been inspired by nature. At the behavioral level, buildings usually mimic the way an organism behaves or responds to the broader context.

An example is the Eastgate Centre in Zimbabwe that has been inspired by the self-regulating African termite mounds (Doan, 2012: Yuan et al., 2017). Conceptually, termite mounds are designed in such a way that they have a self-cooling mechanism. They can maintain the temperature in their nest to a certain degree even in cases where the outside temperature could be fluctuating by more than 40 degrees. Therefore, by mapping the tunnels’ structure in the termite mounds, architects have successfully designed high-rise buildings that do not have air-conditioning (Blok & Gremmen, 2016). Despite the lack of air-conditioning, these buildings can stay cool, relying on only 10% of the energy. The other example is the Qatar Cacti Building that draws inspiration from the cactus and its environmental adaptation. Contrarily, the ecosystem level entails buildings mimicking the natural process as well as the cycle of the larger surrounding (Tabb, 2016). An example is the Sahara Forest Project that works within a cyclical system and mimics the desert beetle of Namibia to combat climate change in arid environments.

For ages, natural organisms have skillfully done everything that humans desire to do without relying on fossil fuels, causing environmental pollution, or compromising the future. Sustainability involves functioning in a manner that enables a person or entity to meet their needs without jeopardizing the ability to sustain or meet these needs in the future (Passino, 2005). A keen look at the natural ecosystems reveals an intricate web of codependency that promote recycling and reusing among organisms. The waste generated by an organism is used as a resource by another organism (Reap et. al, 2005; Okeke et al., 2017). When the resource use rate is not more than the natural replenishment rate, sustainability ceases to become an issue of concern. As organisms develop survival mechanisms, they develop relationships that help in maintaining resource use and replenishment balance (McGregor, 2013). By emulating the way organisms function, policy entrepreneurs could gain relevant information and knowledge that could allow them to develop sustainable solutions that are in tandem with their surroundings.

Drawing lessons from nature to solve problems facing human beings is not a novel concept. Leaves with water inspired mugs and bowls while animal claws inspired knives along with other tools. Further, some perceptions of aesthetics are drawn from nature. Life’s Principles, a sustainability framework developed in 2009 by the Biomimicry Guild, draws a roadmap for proud)ct sustainability. Patel and Mehta (2011) contend that the two principles that provide the overarching patterns observed among species that survive and thrive on Earth, begin with two main statements. First, life evolves and adapts. Second, it creates conditions that are conducive to life. The framework highlights six major points that should be followed to attain sustainability by drawing inspiration from nature. They state that humanity should evolve to survive, embed development into growth, adapting to changing conditions, become resource efficient, use life-friendly chemistry, and become locally responsive and attuned. In the biometrics field, engineers are being inspired by nature and applying these concepts to new technology that supports life (Mathews, 2011). Biomimicry provides human beings with a platform for new sustainability ideas while serving as a great way of achieving restorative solutions that are beneficial to conditions for life to thrive.

Biomimicry has gained popularity as the significance of sustainability becomes more obvious and indisputable. The approach has great potential for filling the gap between natural and human environments. By combining the engineering and biology disciplines, biomimicry has become popular in the design face (Mathews, 2011). This is in line with Zari’s (2007) observation that biomimicry can be roughly divided into a direct approach where designs mimic biology and an indirect approach where biology simply influences design. Biomimicry could transform transportation, medicine, technology, architecture, and entrepreneurship. To move the environmental justice movement forward, it is crucial to change our thinking about sustainability by including solutions such as biomimicry since it offers limitless opportunities for enhancing our world. There is great potential to improve our products, buildings, and processes by optimizing the use of energy, minimizing waste, enhancing efficiency, and becoming cost-effective (Patel & Mehta, 2011). The finite natural resources of the world are being depleted, and there is an urgent need to find sustainable solutions to the current challenges bedeviling the planet.

3.1       Biomimicry for Creative Innovation (BCI) Nature’s Principles

The Biomimicry movement only became more recognized in entrepreneurship and business management recently. ‘Biomimicry for Creative Innovation’ (BCI) refers to professional change agents, design professionals, and biologists that was founded in 2009 to translate the Biomimicry Life’s Principles into a framework that mainly revolves around business and entrepreneurship (DeLuca, 2014): ‘Nature’s Principles.’ BCI also proposed a five-stage transformational process and a template.

3.2       Building Resilience

Resilience is better than correcting poor and risky decisions made using incomplete information. The first principles emphasize that nature develops resilience by deploying change and disruption as opportunities instead of perceiving them as threats, decentralizing and distributing resources, and actions (DeLuca, 2014). It also emphasizes on decision-making and knowledge and encouraging diversity in relationships, people, approaches, and ideas.

3.3       Optimize

Ideally, optimizing results in the delivery of better results through maximization or minimization. Nature achieves this through the creation of forms that fit functions, embedment of multiplicity into responses and functions, creation of complexity and diversity, and basic patterns and components (DeLuca, 2014).

3.4       Adapt

Adaptability is better than remaining in a fixed position. Nature adapts through the creation of feedback loops for sensing and responding to all system levels, anticipation and integration of cyclic processes, and being resourceful as well as opportunistic when there is a change in resource availability (DeLuca, 2014).

3.4.1   Integrate Systems

A changing environment and limited resources necessitate a system-based approach rather than an independent approach. Nature achieves this through fostered synergies in communities, energy, communication networks, information, and creation of extended systems for continuous recycling of wastes into resources (DeLuca, 2014).

3.5       Value Navigation

Values should guide behavior instead of having a fixed destination. Values are reflected by nature by understanding what is essential for communities, utilizing values as the major driver for positive outcomes, measuring what is valued instead of valuing what is measured (DeLuca, 2014).

3.6       Support Life

Fewer resources and effort are taken for supporting life-building activities. Life-building activity is supported by nature through leveraging of innovation and information instead of materials and energy, creation of support for individual components that could support an entire ecosystem, and making bio-based, biodegradable, and renewable products (DeLuca, 2014).

3.7       Policy Entrepreneurship

The word entrepreneur originates from the French word ‘entreprendre’ meaning to undertake. First coined by the French economist Jean-Baptiste, an entrepreneur is someone who takes economic resources from an area with lower productivity into an area of higher productivity. After various years, scholars have expanded its use to the public sector. One of the first scholars to apply the term entrepreneur was Kingdon (1995; 2011). The literature on entrepreneurship has traditionally focused on the resources and abilities of private entrepreneurial agents as well as their networks. Recently, scholars have shifted this attention to the wider institutional environment, including political and legal conditions, which strengthens or deters innovative or entrepreneurial behavior. Following Kingdon’s lead, a lot of academics have tried to figure out what distinguishes policy entrepreneurs from other people in and around the policymaking community (Petridou & Mintrom, 2020). This endeavor led to a convergence of ideas regarding the characteristics, competencies, and tactics frequently associated with policy entrepreneurs.

 Policymakers tend to be part of the state, and there is great potential for depicting them as policy entrepreneurs (Ostrom, 2005; Zahariadis & Exadaktylos, 2016). Today, the literature on policy entrepreneurship remains limited and under-developed. Leca and Naccache (2006) believe that the study of public, institutional, and policy entrepreneurship remains disorderly and characterized by scattered research. The first definition of policy entrepreneurship is believed to be that of Weissert (1991), who defined it as “a person’s willingness to use their resources of expertise, persistence, and skill to achieve certain policies they favor.” This definition resonates with the most standard definition of a policy entrepreneur as a person who takes advantage of the available opportunities in order to influence the outcomes of policy while increasing their self-interests.  

Kingdon (1995; 2011) came up with the Multiple Streams Framework that outlines the policy process into policy, problems, politics and the national mood that the policy entrepreneur must navigate (Zahariadis, 2008). In this stream, political entrepreneurs are heralded as the most active as they create solutions to potential issues and prioritize them in the process of agenda setting. The framework is a beneficial instrument for understanding the art of agenda setting and policy making. In this framework, the most important actors are the policy entrepreneurs because they develop policy options and use them for presenting solutions for policymakers at the appropriate time. Kingdon (1995; 2011) defines policy entrepreneurs as the persons willing to invest their resources, including time, money, and reputation for future benefits in the form of solidary, material, or purposive benefits. Also, policy entrepreneurs use non-traditional strategies and innovative ideas to create opportunities, influence society, and enhance desired policy outcomes. Therefore, policy entrepreneurship can be defined as the process of developing policy alternatives to influence decision-making. Occurring in three major phases, policy entrepreneurship often occurs in three major phases, with the first stage being a demand in the political environment for some innovation that involves a public good (Mintrom, 1997; 2003). Mintrom argues that the second step entails an innovative policy instrument being proposed for supplying that demand. The final strategy is the use of strategies like problem definition, leadership, and team building to ensure that innovation is a crucial part of agenda setting. Contrary to public intellects who strive to be publicly vocal, policy entrepreneurs will mainly focus on particular topics and work with the political elite and state behind the scenes (Mintrom & Norman, 2009; Mintrom, 2020).

3.8       Modeling Biomimicry for Policy Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries

The above-reviewed examples are mainly in the architecture/building sector. By 2030, it is predicted that bioinspired innovation could contribute to the generation of about $1.6 trillion of global GDP. Other reports suggest that organizations using biomimicry could reap immense revenues and have lower expenses compared to those that do not. The development of biomimetic designs for the oil sector could be a major challenge for the smaller oil drilling companies in developing states (Blok & Gremmen, 2016; 2018). This is because tech startups usually have about a 90% rate of failure, and biomimetic organizations are not in any way an exception. It is worth noting that bio-inspired innovation grapples with the same challenges as other innovation forms-including a long period of research, design, and development, market acceptance, as well as financial risk. As they grapple with financial constraints and rigorous testing, there are only a few technologies that advance into the development and prototype stages, and this is a typical pattern observed within product development (Volstad & Boks, 2008). Despite this, biomimicry could minimize the difficulties and costs associated with development. The application of nature’s principles and models to the environmental and sustainability issues afflicting Nigeria could deliver great ways for attaining both environmental and economic objectives. This is because the relationship between biomimicry and policy entrepreneurship could lead to a mutually beneficial relationship. The successes of nature, including highly efficient mechanisms, zero-waste strategies that are sustainable within closed systems as well as highly efficient mechanism-are significantly transforming the way people in advanced societies think about designing, production, storage, transportation and distribution of goods and services (Eggermont, 2007). Globally, biomimicry has become a central part of any ambitious projects and development plans, but developing states are still lagging. To keep pace with the rate of population growth in the next 20 years, and contribute to the attainment of sustainable development goals in Nigeria and Qatar, international analysts contend that there is an increased need for innovative job creation. More importantly, biomimicry could play a crucial role in unlocking the employment and economic potential of these developing states (Lebdioui, 2022).

For years, entrepreneurs have increasingly used biomimicry for solving difficult engineering challenges. An example is Qualcomm’s Mirasol electronic device that mimics the structure of a butterfly wing which reflects light (Ivanić et al., 2015). The structure uses 10% of the power used by a liquid crystal display (LCD) reader. Located in San Diego, Qualcomm Company has a novel display that produces images within the same way that butterfly wings usually produce color, by reflecting light instead of producing it in the same way current LCD screens do (Talamo et al., 2012). Consequently, Mirasol has a better display in direct sunlight while consuming lesser power. In the same way, Qatar and Nigeria entrepreneurs should be inspired that doing business by mimicking nature would result in a great business. An important takeaway from this technology for Nigeria and Qatar is that it could be used as an inspiration for inspiring entrepreneurs to change from the current careless culture to a more responsible and caring culture.

Nigeria mainly faces a plethora of challenges, especially those related to oil production and climate change. In the face of these challenges, the biomimicry approach has great potential for guiding policy development in Nigeria and other developing states that are grappling with environmental sustainability challenges. Successful biomimicry could be instrumental in addressing the challenges being experienced in these countries through the principle of innovation (Pereira et al., 2015). Perhaps, there is no better way of entrepreneurs being innovative than gaining inspiration from nature. Nigeria and other developing states have sufficient knowledge of biomimicry but still, lag in terms of embracing nature-inspired innovations (Lebdioui, 2022). This demonstrates the critical challenge about the existence of a substantial gap between policy entrepreneurs and the compliance of decision-makers (Nagel & Stone 2012; Vincent et al., 2006). Nature-inspired ideas and innovations for cleaner gas and oil extraction can be embraced in Nigeria to solve the oil-drilling process that contributes to environmental degradation. For instance, oil drilling companies in the country can use biomimicry to serve as an ideation tool for all its projects that are associated with carbon sequestration- and oil-filtering from water. The first step could entail conducting a workshop at these companies to ideate the projects that can be further explored by the organization. Prior to such a workshop, a list of at least 30 challenges can be provided by the oil drilling company before three of them that best suit the process of biomimicry is selected. Relevant biological intelligence can also be presented to the experts of oil drilling companies to lead to an ideation process (Van Vuuren, 2014). In the course of ideation, the evaluating team should identify the biological strategies for each of the challenges that were identified as suitable for the biomimicry. Such a workshop by entrepreneurs could result in various project ideas, and the oil drilling companies could embrace the main ones. Some of the ideas that may come up from such a workshop are off-the-shelf biomimetic products, white papers, and other biological strategies.

Background adoption of biomimicry can enable policy entrepreneurs to develop policies that draw insights from context-dependent environmental sustainability bottlenecks. This could be achieved in various ways:

3.9       Waste Management

A vital area where entrepreneurs can utilize biomimicry principles is the management of waste. A key concern for entrepreneurs would be how they would emulate the natural system that lacks knowledge about the waste concept (Zari, 2018). This concern could be solved using inspiration from the Blue Planet Company founded by Brent Constantz, who used nature as a way for processing carbon dioxide emissions. Rain forests and coral reefs heralded as the largest natural structures on Earth are made from carbon. Reefs are famous for carbon sequestration and reusing their waste byproducts (Zari, 2015; 2018). Upon producing calcium carbonate, they emit carbon dioxide, which feeds the symbiotic algae, which play a crucial role in supporting them. Blue Planet has collaborated with DeepWaterDesal, a desalination plant in California, to mix the carbon dioxide waste released by its power plants with calcium obtained from the desalination of water since 2011. The result has been limestone, which is a building material that is needed by the construction industry of California-and this is the same material that makes coral reefs. This process can be emulated by the oil industry and other processes that contribute to environmental degradation (Montgomery, 2009).

Garbage collection could also be turned into garbage processing using nature-inspired solutions (Montgomery, 2009). The example of Waste Management Company in Houston, Texas, could provide insight into how companies can collect the garbage through biomimicry. The company manages waste in Canada and the US. It previously focused on the collection of the garbage but has been actively moving towards the objective of zero waste. The company tackles the waste problem from the source to the final disposal stage, offering recycling services and devising more ways for reusing wastes and converting them into new products (Zari, 2018). To accomplish this, Nigeria and Qatar companies can forge partnerships with other organizations the same way the company does. It is worth noting that wet waste streams result in the organic waste fermentation, which eventually could lead to the production of diesel, soil, diesel, organic acids as well as biogas. Dry materials could be used within the chemical pathways for capturing carbon, leading to the production of diesel, ethanol, methanol, and ethyl acetate (Ivanić et al., 2015; Montgomery, 2009). The company also seeks to convert waste into chemicals. The main difference with many companies in developing states is that recycling is common in the company.

Waste Management Company has made efforts to go beyond recycling in order to protect the environment and obtain vale out of something that would have filled the landfills. Through the creation of products from waste, companies in Nigeria and Qatar can reduce the number of raw materials that should be obtained. In other words, the company is emulating the way natural systems usually reuse their materials. Nature does not have anything like garbage since all molecules go through various configurations in many organisms. For instance, when a tree falls, organisms decompose the chemical compounds of the tree into individual molecules and other compounds, which other organisms then use. Since everything is used, there is no waste generated.

In the same way, entrepreneurial firms in developing states should follow other Life’s Principles apart from Recycle All Materials (Patel, & Mehta, 2011). This could be boosted by developing relationships with clients and other entrepreneurs and using feedback loops from clients. The challenge that would be solved is the reduction of the quantity of waste that currently finds itself in landfills. The other example that Nigerian entrepreneurs could consider is Mushroom Packaging done by Evocative Designs. The company develops compostable bioplastics through the use of mushroom mycelium and agricultural waste. Mushroom materials are environmentally responsible options to the traditional plastic which harm the environment. These materials are self-assembling (a core biomimicry principle) and at the end of their life, hence act as a perfect zero-waste cycle (Montgomery, 2009).

3.10    Sustainable Buildings

3.10.1   Abuja Centenary City

Modern-Day Nigeria became a nation-state in January 1914 after the formal combination of the southern and northern protectorates. Therefore, January 2019 marked the 105 years of union. In 2014, Nigeria’s presidency announced a master plan for Abuja Centenary City, an $18.6 billion smart eco-city. The vision of this city illustrates the harmony between nature and man’s work as well as the way the society could learn from the importance of nature in creating a great example on the future of urban development (Adebisi, et.al, 2015). As a smart eco-city, Abuja Centenary City is an example that demonstrates the use of biomimicry on a systems level. It is scheduled to be operational by 2024, and its modeling is based on nature, including the aspects of waste management, production of energy and transportation. The city is being constructed as a litany of decentralized cells that are interdependent and self-sufficient, with the capacity to cooperatively and rapidly respond and adapt to their needs and the needs of the environment. The city is a result of a collaboration between biomimicrySA and Greg Wright Architects to come up with a biomimicry approach for urban infrastructural development that is suitable for the African context. The challenge that architectures sought to tackle was how to develop a flourishing city in Abuja that operates in the same way a mature ecosystem does through a circular metabolism, diversity of functions and species, modular infrastructure, and web-like food chains (Adebisi et al., 2015). The model provides the chance to combine development with growth on the continent, thus creating an adaptable, resilient, and comfortable city to live in.

Drawing inspiration from biomimicry, the design team relied on nature as its model, measure, and mentor. The structures and systems of nature informed the principles embraced in how the city would be designed. An element that makes the systems of nature to function effectively is the lack of stasis. Information, materials, nutrients, and energy flow constantly and perpetually. Nature prevents the generation of waste and destruction and builds everything efficiently using the available resources, with matter breaking down and being reused where it falls (Adebisi et al., 2015). Materials and resources are efficiently and effectively produced, used, and disposed of. Such regenerative circular metabolism, as well as the constant resource flow, nurtures the cities inhabitants without habitat exploitation. The model of nature is mimicked for effective and sustainable growth. Similar to other living organisms, the city’s design is in terms of a series of interdependent and self-sufficient cells (Patel & Mehta, 2011). This is a principle that is used for constructions themselves as they are perceived as individual organisms that handle their resources, such as energy and waste management. As cells mature and divide, their modular and decentralized design can respond and adapt to their needs and needs of the surrounding. Nature has been incorporated as an important part of the city and is used as a vital resource. Water flows smoothly in the entire city, with the inhabitants respecting and using it to their advantage (Adekunye et al., 2022).

The city also features green belts that follow natural watercourse and act as urban agriculture that minimizes the need for bringing in resources from outside these cells. The waterways’ edges function as bio-filters where wastewater is turned into usable and clean water. The transport system’s design also draws inspiration from nature to optimize the flow of the various transport hierarchies. Communities are not divided by transport corridors, while foot traffic is not pushed to the periphery. It is also worth noting that all other transport forms are curtailed around this need. Non-motorized transport and pedestrians are also prioritized, with all other transport forms being tailored around this need (Adebisi et al., 2015; Adekunye et al., 2022). Public transport has also been integrated into the infrastructure to ensure that it fulfills its role seamlessly by connecting residents with people outside these cells. Cars have been embedded in the master plan, especially in the background. The ecosystem’s health is maintained using green and zero emission transport technology. These principles guide the design of the city, as buildings should strive to have “zero” environmental effect in terms of energy, carbon, trash, or water (Amer, 2019), thus making it function like an abundant and mature ecosystem. Similar to thriving ecosystems, more diversity will make the city vibrant and more productive.

3.10.2   East Gate Building in Harare, Zimbabwe

The building is an ideal example of ecologically sensitive adaptation and green architecture. As Zimbabwe’s largest shopping complex and office, East Gate marvels in its deployment of biomimicry principles. It is a mid-rise building that was designed by Mick Pearce with Arup engineers, and lacks conventional air conditioning, but remains regulated annually with significantly less energy consumption through design techniques inspired by the country’s indigenous masonry and the “thermostatic” African termite mounds (Turner & Soar, 2008). In Zimbabwe, termites build gigantic mounds where they have a fungus acting as the primary food source. This fungus should be maintained at 87 degrees F, and termites achieve this consistently opening and closing various cooling and heating vents in the mound during the day. Carefully designed convection currents enable the mounds to suck in air at its lowest part, into enclosures with muddy walls, and to the termite mound’s peak (Koelman, 2004). Industrial termites consistently dig new vents while plugging up the old ones as a way of regulating the temperature. Predominantly made of concrete, the Eastgate Center has a ventilation system operating in the same way. Air drawn in is cooled or warmed depending on the temperature. It is then vented into the floors of the building before exiting through chimneys at the top (Foley & Kistemann, 2015).

Also, it has two buildings side by side separated by an open space which is open to local breezes. Fans found on the first floor facilitate the movement of air from the open space before being pushed up the vertical supply ducts in the central spine of each respective building. Stale air is replaced by fresh air and gets out through exhaust ports found on each floor’s ceilings. The air then gets into the exhaust sections of vertical ducts prior to being flushed out through the chimneys. The center uses not more than 10% of the energy that a conventional building of its size uses. This has contributed to significant savings since the owners have been able to save $3.5 million due to an air conditioning system that was not implemented (Koelman, 2004). Apart from being environmentally-friendly and eco-efficient, the savings also trickle down to tenants who pay 20% less rent compared to occupants of surrounding buildings.

Policy entrepreneurs can also replicate the principles used in constructing the East-gate Center by using gradients. The aim could be to achieve at least 80% reduction in the use of energy and 70% less water use (Nkandu & Alibaba, 2018; Daminabo & Akpe, 2021). Similar to East-gate, Nigeria could embark on a journey of cooling its buildings by timely managing the temperature difference. In such a case, an entire side of a building could open up to direct intake of air through automatic shutters obtained from recycled wood. It would enable the warmer air to rise to the openings within the ceilings and then travel through a vertical shaft and hollow floors before reaching the roof vents (Nkandu, & Alibaba, 2018). Qatar and Nigeria building entrepreneurs could also use different temperature gradient of water for conditioning the buildings. Buildings can also be designed in such a way that they use thermal mass for absorbing heat, thus minimizing heat gain and producing power and heat through thermal and photovoltaic solar panels. Despite the successful use of gradient by architects inspired by nature being the dominant theme, many other building lessons could be learned from termites (French & Ahmed, 2010). These creatures do not use foresight or build mounds alone, and also do not know the methods they use. However, they use humble materials for building 25-foot-high structures that need dynamite sticks to remove.

3.10.3   The Qatar Cacti Building

The building was designed for the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture (MMAA) in Qatar and resembles a towering cactus. Qatar is covered by sand, and fairly barren because of the low average annual rainfall. Because it has one of the highest gross domestic products (GDPs) in the world, it can construct great buildings that could be quite efficient for the hostile and hot desert environment. Designers of the building drew inspiration of the MMAA’s new office from the cactus, especially the way the plants deal with the unbearable desert climate (Ramzy, 2015; Daminabo & Akpe, 2021). Its adjacent botanical dome and modern office bio-mimic the cacti and the way they survive within the hot and dry environments.

The design of the building is such that it is quite energy efficient and uses sun shades on the windows. Basing on the sun’s intensity during the day, excess heat is controlled by the opening or closing of the sun shades. It is similar to the way a cactus performs transpiration at night instead of the day as a way of retaining water, thus highlighting its reliance on biomimicry. The base has a botanic dome that houses a botanical garden. Innovative solutions are used for waste management, thus making the process an eco-conscious endeavor (Ramzy, 2015). This is because it conserves water, and reduces the overall costs of treatment with minimal disposal of sludge and sewer discharges. Through the reorganization of the natural resources, the building design changes dirty water into clean water. Waste-water goes through three varying ecological systems which process and filter in diverse ways (Hawsawi, 2016). Each ecological system has also been isolated from others to treat waste-water basing on its unique needs, after which water moves to the next community. The technology can utilize beneficial bacteria, plants, snails, fish, and fungi by digesting pollutants after breaking them down. The botanical dome is also instrumental for air and climate control, as well as for cultivating a sustainable food source for people who are employed (Daminabo & Akpe, 2021).

3.11    Sustainable Food Production

Food production has been cited as one of the major contributors to pollution, health issues, and degradation (Ranganathan et al., 2020). African entrepreneurs can make sustainable food production a key part of their policies by embedding the biomimicry concept. Inspiration could be drawn from the Biomimicry Institute in the US that has taken the sustainable food production a step further through its Food Systems Design Challenge, which encourages entrepreneurs to enhance their food production system by mimicking processes and techniques found in nature (Rossin, 2010). For example, agriculture could be combined with the famous structures of nature (Foley et al., 2005; Montgomery, 2007). Hexagro is one such example that is described as a modular aeroponic home-growing system that consists of individual hexagon-shaped bins that draw inspiration from the honeycombs of bees. The designer wanted the product to address some of the environmental issues related to large-scale agriculture, including carbon emissions, fertilizer run-off, and the use of pesticides. Since many people cannot spend a lot of time gardening in developing states, Hexagro provides a biomimicry model that does not consume much personal time. The bins which can grow spinach, potatoes, herbs, and carrots evoke a beehive’s resource efficiency. When stacked well, they can fit into any available space. Since the roots of the plants are in the air, the pods reduce water consumption by 90% compared to the traditional mode of farming (Blok & Gremmen, 2016; Scholes & Scholes, 2013).

The Hexagro model can be embraced in developing states to decentralize food production and offer an economic opportunity for growers to sell their surplus produce. In other words, through biomimicry, developing states could have a community of growers and distributors who take locally grown food into the market, reducing the emission of CO₂ which is commonly associated with the transportation of food. Also, the Living Filtration system that was designed by a student group at the University of Oregon can be emulated in Qatar and Nigeria. It is an agricultural tool that emulates the filtration processes that are utilized throughout nature. Designed in such a way to minimize chemical and fertilizer runoff from farms, the system can remove excess moisture from the soil surface (Zari, 2010). This is because of a drainage pipe made from renewable material mimicking the villi of an earthworm. 

Similarly, entrepreneurs should devise solutions that can make it easier for people who live in small urban spaces to grow foods free from pesticides at home. A group of young and tech-savvy entrepreneurs called Ukulima Tech in Nairobi Kenya has also embraced a similar design (Osewe et al., 2016). These entrepreneurs have developed vertical gardens from various accessories in all sizes and shapes. The startup seeks to sensitize the society on sustainable utilization of environmental resources within food production while simultaneously ensuring that the society understands the hazards that arise from inappropriate use of farming methods and inputs. Therefore, Qatar, Nigerian, and other developing state firms can use such biomimicry opportunities within their operations. By entrepreneurs embedding them into policies, biomimicry thinking could be instrumental for creating processes and products that are sustainable since they will adhere to life’s principles (Bennett et al., 2009).

3.12    Industrial Prevention of Waste

Nature has developed efficient ways of preventing waste, resulting in efficient and healthier ecosystems. Emulating the strategies of nature in human designs could lead to the discovery of new solutions for the waste challenge. The human kidney could be used as an inspiration for the separation and recycling of resources. In Nigeria, the industrial oil processes usually entail separation steps that are resource intensive. Whereas many biochemical synthetic methods do not require separation steps, other physiological processes do.

An example is blood filtering that eliminates potentially harmful inorganic and organic materials. Water, beneficial minerals, proteins, and glucose are separated from the harmful materials and recycled into the bloodstream. The kidney’s filtration process can be perceived as a collection of assembly lines that perform the same task. The nephron can be viewed as the assembly line in this case (Francipane, & Lagasse, 2016). This process could be used for improving the efficiency of chemical separation. Useful constituents in waste streams should be recycled into the process for later use.

4. Recommendations

Entrepreneurs in developing states should embrace biomimicry thinking to create processes and products that are sustainable by adhering to life’s principles. This entails building from the bottom, self-assembling, optimizing instead of maximizing, using free energy, cross-pollinating, embracing diversity, adapting and evolving, and using life-friendly processes and materials. By adhering to the principles that are used by life, entrepreneurs can create processes and products that are adapted to life on the African Continent, save energy, and perform well. Policy entrepreneurs in developing countries should seek to empower humanity and apply the best insights from more than three billion years of development and regenerative research. They should also be committed to reconnecting people with the environment and human with natural systems. The process they use for solving issues should be based on the tools and methodology developed by Biomimicry 3.8 by various stakeholders. Policy entrepreneurs should also strive to work with educators, architects, designers, business, engineers and policymakers to not only consult but also translate the natural design principles for developing products, systems, and processes that create conditions that support life. Also, the approach used should be founded on Life’s Principles. More importantly, policy entrepreneurs ought to develop collaborative services and partnerships for supporting dialogue and interdisciplinary exchange across various sectors.

Policy entrepreneurs should use biomimicry to foster innovation that can tackle the environmental challenges that are currently being experienced. Kennedy and Marting (2016) contend that policy entrepreneurs can use biomimicry for supporting sustainability-driven solutions. Biomimicry could be specifically beneficial for solution discovery in the oil sector rather than solution validation. For example, Nigeria’s policy entrepreneurs can advocate for the development of policies that reward organizations that use biomimicry for driving product innovation that is environmentally sustainable. Developing countries’ policy entrepreneurs could also be inspired by nature to find nature-inspired solutions for solving the energy problem that continues to cause havoc to the environment. Hummingbirds could be used for the development of policies that enhance energy efficiency. Today, wind farms have increasingly become common globally, and their unique turbine blades are becoming a part of the environment. In developing states, governments should develop policies that encourage companies to redesign their whole shape to mimic the hummingbird that utilizes energy in such an efficient way that it can flap its wings up to 200 times in a second. Entrepreneurs and companies can use biophysics for analyzing and simulating a hummingbird’s motion, then apply the Aouinian 3D kinematics that facilitates the change of linear into rotational motion. Drawing on this insight, entrepreneurs can develop a vertical axis wind power converter that maximizes efficiency while reducing the drag.

Furthermore, policy entrepreneurs ought to use Life’s Principles as a foundation for the successful design of social enterprises. Patel and Mehta (2011) suggest that using biomimicry could be beneficial for policy entrepreneurs since it would enable them to imitate natural processes and designs to tackle the issues bedeviling developing countries. As such, Qatar, Nigeria, and other developing states’ policy entrepreneurs should mainstream biomimicry into the policy development processes and activities. To become successful in tackling the environmental and sustainability challenges, policy entrepreneurs should use Life’s principles to address the current management, product design, and structural issues in the conceptualization and development stages of policies (Bennett et al., 2009). Finally, DeLuca (2014) offers insight that capacity building of communities could be instrumental for achieving sustainability. This effort requires policy entrepreneurs who can understand the challenges afflicting communities and mimic nature to come up with radical innovations.

5. Conclusion

Biomimicry and policy entrepreneurship are emerging concepts that provide the potential for the attainment of sustainability in the developing world. Biomimicry particularly has a great potential for policy development in countries such as Nigeria and Qatar that are in dire need for sustainable solutions to their current issues that revolve around environmental degradation. Basing on the Multiple Streams Framework, policy entrepreneurs could play a crucial role in identifying the demands for innovation in these countries whenever there is an open policy window. The connection that they have with ruling governments in these countries places them at a better position of influencing the biomimicry solutions that can be embraced. This is important because many of the developing states are still grappling with dictatorial regimes, weak institutions, and lack of political will. When the policy windows are open, policy entrepreneurs can use their institutional, network, and personal resources to influence policymaking on biomimicry. This could be achieved by tackling issues and developing solutions through the creation of policy alternatives into sustainable products that they could present as influential or persuasive agenda. They can also roll out persuasive techniques and strategies to the policymakers to compel their biomimicry innovations to be at the top of the agenda. Successful policy entrepreneurs could also play a crucial role in ensuring that the sustainable issues of the communities they represent become political agendas and influence some form of legislation. With this in mind, background adoption of biomimicry by policy entrepreneurs can enable them to develop policy ideas that are informed by sustainability challenges afflicting developing countries. As such, it is pivotal for policy entrepreneurs to introduce biomimicry approaches in policymaking to help these countries to transform towards a greener economy and sustainable development practices. The existing gap between policy entrepreneurs and decision-makers’ compliance, however, should be addressed. Further research is required to identify ways of filling these gaps and pushing biomimicry to become top of the agenda for policy entrepreneurs and policymakers.

---

Author(s) Summary

---

Acknowledgements

The author will like to thank Professor Damilola Olawuyi for his intellectual guidance and unwavering support.

Funding

No funding received for this work.

Availability of Data and Material

All data are open sources and available for all to consider. Any further information can be provided on a request by the corresponding author. Please consider referring the author and article when utilizing parts of the published article by Springer.

Author(s) Contribution

A.A conceived the study, drafted the outline of manuscript and wrote the manuscript.

Competing Interest

The author declare that they have no competing interests.

---

References

Adebisi, G. O., Onuwe, J. O., & Sani, A. M. (2015). Assessment of Bio-mimicry Design Concept Adoption in Architecture: Towards a Sustainable Built Environment in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 9(4), 41-46. [CrossRef]

Adekunye, O.J. and Oke, A.E. (2022). Applicable Areas of Biomimicry Principles for Sustainable Construction in Nigeria. Construction Innovation. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]  

Akpe, N. B., & Daminabo, F. F. (2021). Bio-mimicry: An Approach towards Sustainability in Resort Buildings. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 10(3). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]  

Amer, N. (2019). Biomimetic Approach in Architectural Education: Case Study of Biomimicry in Architecture Course. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 10(3), 499-506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] 

Bennett, E. M., Peterson, G. D., & Gordon, L. J. (2009). Understanding Relationships Among Multiple Ecosystem Services. Ecology Letters, 12(12), 1394–1404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Benyus, J. M. (1997) Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, (1st ed). New York: Morrow. [Google Scholar]

Benyus, J. M. (2002). Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. New York: Perennial.

Benyus, J. M. (2009). Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. New York: Harper Collins.

Blok, V., & Gremmen, B. (2016). Ecological Innovation: Biomimicry as a New Way of Thinking and Acting Ecologically. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 29(2), 203-217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Blok, V. & Gremmen, H. G. J. (2018). Agricultural Technologies as Living Machines: Toward a Biomimetic Conceptualization of Technology. Ethics, Policy and Environment. 21(2): 246-263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cooper, H., Hedges, L. V., & Valentine, J. C. (2009). The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, (2nd ed.) New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

DeLuca, D. K. (2014). Inspired by nature: Building community capacity through creative leadership. In M² Models and Methodologies for Community Engagement (pp. 107-119). Singapore: Springer. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Doan, A. (2012). Biomimetic Architecture: Green Building in Zimbabwe Modeled after Termite Mounds. Inhabitat, LLC. Retrieved June 28, 2022, from [Website]

Eggermont, M. (2007). Biomimetics as Problem-Solving, Creativity and Innovation Tool. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Foley, J. A., DeFries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., … & Snyder, P. K. (2005). Global Consequences of Land Use. Science, 309(5734), 570-574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M., Mueller, N. D., O’Connell, C., Ray, D. K., West, P. C., Balzer, C., Bennett, E. M., Carpenter, S. R., Hill, J., Monfreda, C., Polasky, S., Rockström, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., … Zaks, D. P. M. (2011). Solutions for a Cultivated Planet. Nature, 478(7369). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Foley, R., & Kistemann, T. (2015). Blue Space Geographies: Enabling Health in Place. Health & Place, 35, 157–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Francipane, M. G., & Lagasse, E. (2016). Toward organs on demand: breakthroughs and challenges in models of organogenesis. Current pathobiology reports, 4(3), 77-85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

French, J. R., & Ahmed, B. M. (2010). The challenge of biomimetic design for carbon‐neutral buildings using termite engineering. Insect Science, 17(2), 154-162. [CrossRef]

Hawsawi, H. I. (2016). Nature Inspired Interior Design Principles in the Hot Arid Climate of Saudi Arabia. Arizona: Arizona State University.

Ivanić, K. Z., Tadić, Z., & Omazić, M. A. (2015). Biomimicry–an overview. The Holistic Approach to Environment, 5(1), 19-36.

Jesson, J., Matheson, L., & Lacey, F. M. (2011). Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques. Los Angeles, California: Sage. [Google Scholar]

Kennedy, E. B., & Marting, T. A. (2016). Biomimicry: Streamlining the Front End of Innovation for Environmentally Sustainable Products: Biomimicry can be a powerful design tool to support sustainability-driven product development in the front end of innovation. Research-Technology Management, 59(4), 40-48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. New York: Harper Collins. 

Kingdon, J. W. (2011).  Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, Update Edition, with an Epilogue on Health Care (Longman Classics in Political Science) (2nd ed.), London: Pearson.

Koelman, O. (2004). Biomimetic Buildings Understanding & Applying the Lessons of Nature. BioInspire, 21. [Google Scholar]

Lau, F., & Kuziemsky, C. (2016). Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-Based Approach. Victoria: University of Victoria. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Lebdioui, A. (2022). Nature-inspired innovation policy: Biomimicry as a pathway to leverage biodiversity for economic development. Ecological Economics. 202, 107585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Leca, B. & Naccache, P. (2006). A Critical Realist Approach to Institutional Entrepreneurship. Organization, 13, 626-651. [CrossRef]

Lehn, J. M., & Benyus, J. (2012). Bioinspiration and Biomimicry in Chemistry: Reverse-Engineering Nature. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar]

 Levy, Y., & Ellis, T. J. (2006). A systems approach to conduct an effective literature review in support of information systems research. Informing Science, 9, 181-211. [CrossRef]

 Mathews, F. (2011). Towards a deeper philosophy of biomimicry. Organization & Environment, 24(4), 364-387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

McGregor, S. L. (2013) Transdisciplinarity and Biomimicry, Transdisciplinary Journal of Engineering & Science, 4(1), 57‐65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Mintrom, M. (1997). Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation. American Journal of Political Science, 41(3), 738-770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Mintrom M. (2003). People Skills for Policy Analysts. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press [Google Scholar]

Mintrom, M., & Norman, P. (2009). Policy Entrepreneurship and Policy Change. Policy Studies Journal, 37(4), 649-667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Montgomery, D. (2009). Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. California: University of California Press. 

Nagel, J. & Stone, R. (2012). A Computational Approach to Biologically Inspired Design. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing, 26(2): 161–176.[Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Nkandu, M. I., & Alibaba, H. Z. (2018). Biomimicry as an Alternative Approach to Sustainability. Architecture Research, 8(1), 1-11. [Google Scholar]

Osewe, D. O., Kharde, P. B., & Oyedola, W. K. (2016). Utilization of Innovative Technologies in Smallholder Farms: A Model for Sustainable Dairy Enterprise in Kenya. Journal of Global Communication, 9(1), 4-9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Ostrom, E. (2005). Unlocking Public Entrepreneurship and Public Economies. World Institute for Development Economics (UNU-WIDER), 1. [Google Scholar]        

Paré, G., Trudel, M. C., Jaana, M., & Kitsiou, S. (2015). Synthesizing Information Systems Knowledge: A Typology of Literature Reviews. Information & Management, 52(2), 183-199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Passino, K. M. (2005). Biomimicry for Optimization, Control, and Automation. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Patel, S., & Mehta, K. (2011). Life’s Principles as a Framework for Designing Successful Social Enterprises. Journal of Social Entrepreneurship, 2(2), 218-230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Pawlyn, M. (2011) Biomimicry in Architecture, (1st ed.), London: Riba Publishing.

Pawlyn, M. (2016). Biomimicry in Architecture (2nd ed.), p. 129. Newcastle: RIBA Publishing

Pereira, P. M. M., Monteiro, G. A., & Prazeres, D. M. F. (2015). General Aspects of Biomimetic Materials In F. P. Torgal., J. A. Labrincha, M. V. Diamanti., C. P. Yu., & H. K. Lee. (Eds.), Biotechnologies and Biomimetics for Civil Engineering (pp. 57-79). Cham: Springer. [Google Scholar]

Petridou E., & Mintrom, M. (2020). A Research Agenda for the Study of Policy Entrepreneurs. Policy Studies Journal. 49(4). 943-967. [CrossRef]

 Ramzy, N. (2015). Sustainable spaces with psychological values: Historical architecture as reference book for biomimetic models with biophilic qualities. International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR, 9(2), 248-267. [Google Scholar]

Ranganathan, J., Waite, R., Searchinger, T., & Zionts, J. (2020). Regenerative agriculture: good for soil health, but limited potential to mitigate climate change. World Resources Institute. [Google Scholar]

Rao, R. (2014) Biomimicry in Architecture, International Journal of Advanced research in Civil, Structural, Environmental and Infrastructural Engineering and Developing, 1(3), 101‐107. [Google Scholar]

Reap, J., Baumeister, D., & Bras, B. (2005, January). Holism, biomimicry and sustainable engineering. In ASME 2005 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. 42185, (pp. 423-431). American Society of Mechanical Engineers. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Reed, P. A. (2003) A paradigm shift: biomimicry: biomimicry is a new way of linking the human‐made world to the natural world. The Technology Teacher, 63(4), 23.  [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rossin, K. J. (2010). Biomimicry: Nature’s Design Process Versus the Designer’s Process. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 138, 559-570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Scholes, M. C., & Scholes, R. J. (2013). Dust unto Dust. Science, 342(6158), 565-566. [Google Scholar]

Shea, B. J., Hamel, C., Wells, G. A., Bouter, L. M., Kristjansson, E., Grimshaw, J., & Boers, M. (2009). AMSTAR is a Reliable and Valid Measurement Tool to Assess the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10), 1013-1020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Tabb, P. (2016). Greening Architecture: The Impact of Sustainability. In A Critical History of Contemporary Architecture(pp. 119-142). Abingdon: Routledge. [Google Scholar]

Talamo, A., Bowman, C., & Xie, Y. (2012). Butterfly Wing—Inspired Nanotechnology. The Nanobiotechnology Handbook, 203. [Google Scholar]

 Turner, J. S., & Soar, R. C. (2008, May). Beyond Biomimicry: What Termites can tell us about Realizing the Living Building. In First International Conference on Industrialized, Intelligent Construction at Loughborough University (pp. 1-18). [Google Scholar]

Van Vuuren, L. (2014). Biomimicry: Exploring Nature’s Genius for a Better Tomorrow. Water Wheel, 13(6), 12-15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Vincent, V., Bogatyreva, A., Bogatyrev, R., Bowyer, A., & Pahl, A. (2006).  Biomimetics:  Its Practice and Theory. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 3(9), 471–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Volstad, N. L., & Boks, C. (2008). Biomimicry–a Useful Tool for the Industrial Designer? In DS 50: Proceedings of NordDesign 2008 Conference, Tallinn, Estonia, 21.-23.08. 2008 (pp. 275-284). [Google Scholar]

Weissert, C. S. (1991). Policy Entrepreneurs, Policy Opportunists, and Legislative Effectiveness. American Politics Quarterly, 19(2), 262-274. [Google Scholar]

 Yuan, Y., Yu, X., Yang, X., Xiao, Y., Xiang, B., & Wang, Y. (2017). Bionic Building Energy Efficiency and Bionic Green Architecture: A Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, 74, 771-787. [Google Scholar]

Zahariadis, N. (2008). National Subsidies in the Global Economy. In State Subsidies in the Global Economy (pp. 159-168). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [Google Scholar]

Zahariadis, N., & Exadaktylos, T. (2016). Policies that Succeed and Programs that Fail: Ambiguity, Conflict, and Crisis in Greek Higher Education. Policy Studies Journal, 44(1), 59-82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zari, M. P. (2007, November). Biomimetic Approaches to Architectural Design for Increased Sustainability. In The SB07 NZ Sustainable Building Conference (pp. 1-10) [Google Scholar]

Zari, M. P. (2010). Biomimetic Design for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation. Architectural Science Review, 53(2), 172-183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

 Zari, M. P. (2015). Can Biomimicry Be a Useful Tool for Design for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation? In Pacheco Torgal, F., Labrincha, J., Diamanti, M., Yu, CP., Lee, H. (Eds), Biotechnologies and Biomimetics for Civil Engineering (pp. 81-113). Springer, Cham. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zari, M. P. (2018). Regenerative Urban Design and Ecosystem Biomimicry. Abingdon: Routledge. [CrossRef]

---

About this Article

Cite this Article

APA
Akinsemolu, A. A. (2023). Biomimicry as a Primer in Policy Entrepreneurship for Environmental Sustainability in Developing Oil Producing Countries: A Case Study of Nigeria and Qatar. SustainE, 1(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.55366/suse.v1i1.1 

Chicago
Akinsemolu, Adenike A. “Biomimicry as a Primer in Policy Entrepreneurship for Environmental Sustainability in Developing Oil Producing Countries: A Case Study of Nigeria and Qatar.” SustainE 1, no. 1 (May 1, 2023): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.55366/suse.v1i1.1. 

Corresponding Author Email: a.akinsemolu@bham.ac.uk

Disclaimer: The opinions and statements expressed in this article are the authors’ sole responsibility and do not necessarily reflect the viewpoints of their affiliated organizations, the publisher, the hosted journal, the editors, or the reviewers. Furthermore, any product evaluated in this article or claims made by its manufacturer are not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Distributed under Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0

Share this article

Use the buttons below to share the article on desired platforms.